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The Quraysh () were an Arab tribe who controlled Mecca before the rise of Islam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including the Banu Hashim, into which Islam's founding prophet Muhammad was born. By the seventh century, they had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between the Indian Ocean, East Africa, and the Mediterranean. The tribe ran caravans to Gaza City and Damascus in summer and to Yemen in winter, while also mining and pursuing other enterprises on these routes.
When Muhammad began preaching Islam in Mecca, the Quraysh initially showed little concern. However, their opposition to his activities quickly grew as he increasingly challenged Arab polytheism, which was prevalent throughout pre-Islamic Arabia. As relations deteriorated, Muhammad and Early Muslims migrated to Medina (the journey known as the Hijrah) after negotiating with the Banu Aws and the Banu Khazraj to mediate their conflict. However, the two sides proved unable to reach a peaceful resolution, and the Quraysh continued to obstruct Muhammad's community's attempts to perform the Islamic pilgrimage at Mecca, prompting him to confront them through armed conflict, primarily by conducting raids on their caravans. These raids eventually escalated into several major battles, including those at Badr, Uhud, and "the Trench" (Medina's outskirts). Following these engagements and changes in Medina's political landscape, including the expulsion of three Jewish tribes, Muhammad reportedly shifted the focus of his military campaigns from Quraysh caravans to the northern Arab tribes, such as the Banu Lahyan and the Banu Mustaliq.
As Muhammad's position in Medina became more established, attitudes towards him in his hometown became more approving. The Treaty of al-Hudaybiya formalized a ten-year truce (beginning in March 628) with the Quraysh and allowed Muhammad to perform Umrah in Mecca in the following year. During this pilgrimage, Muhammad reconciled with his clan, as symbolized by his marriage to Maymuna bint al-Harith. Further, several prominent Meccans, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As, recognized Muhammad's increasing influence in Arab society and converted to Islam, thereafter coming to play a pivotal role in the early Muslim conquests.
According to Muslim sources, the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya was broken by the Quraysh approximately two years after it was ratified; a belligerent party within the tribe, acting against the advice of their chief Abu Sufyan, had supported one of their client clans in a conflict against the Banu Khuza'ah, who were allied with Muhammad, prompting him to march with an army of 10,000 men to besiege Mecca. Confronted by the incoming force, Abu Sufyan and others, including Muhammad's ally Khuza'i Budayl ibn Warqa, met with Muhammad to request amnesty for all Quraysh members who did not resist his advance. Thus, Muhammad and his troops entered Mecca virtually unopposed, and almost all of the city's inhabitants converted to Islam. After Muhammad's death in 632, Caliph traditionally passed to a person belonging to the Quraysh, as was the case with the Rashidun, the Umayyad dynasty, and the Abbasid dynasty, and purportedly with the Fatimid dynasty.
According to historian F. E. Peters, Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in the time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Kaaba, and "what passed for municipal offices designated have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine". During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be the strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leading (tribal chieftains).
According to historian Gerald R. Hawting, if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, "must have lived in the second half of the fifth century". However, historian W. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of the 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed the Abd al-Dar clan, including the clans of Banu Sahm, Banu Adi, Banu Makhzum and Banu Jumah, became known as ('the Confederates'), while those who backed the Abd Manaf clan, including the Banu Taym, Banu Asad, Banu Zuhra and Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr, were known as ('the Perfumed').
The sanctuary village of Mecca developed into a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh "were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other". Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans to Gaza City, Bosra, Damascus and al-Arish in the summer. The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in the Hejaz (western Arabia). In the words of Fred Donner:
By Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade the had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in "buying cheap and selling dear," but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short, a class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia.
The Banu Makhzum and Banu Umayya, in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics. The Banu Umayya and the Banu Nawfal, another clan descending from Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from the faction in 605 and engaged in business with the . Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own. During a commercial incident where a Yemenite merchant was robbed of his trade by al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, the reformed in the Hilf al-Fudul, which consisted of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib, which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of Abd Manaf, and the Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans. The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan. According to Watt, "In all the stories of the pre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating is uncertain."
After obtaining spoils from a caravan at Nakhla, Muhammad learned of a larger Quraysh caravan returning from Gaza City. He attempted to intercept it, but the caravan rerouted. Instead, Muhammad encountered Quraysh troops led by Amr ibn Hisham, and despite being outnumbered, won the Battle of Badr, gaining prestige and followers.
The Quraysh defeat at Badr was significant, causing them to lose many of their influential or experienced men and their prestige. Seeking to restore their honor, the Quraysh, led by Abu Sufyan, mobilized 3,000 troops to confront Muhammad, resulting in the Battle of Uhud. Initially, Muhammad's forces had the upper hand, but a setback occurred when his archers abandoned their positions and pursued the fleeing Meccan soldiers. The Meccan military strategist Khalid ibn al-Walid exploited this and Muhammad's forces retreated. The Quraysh did not pursue further, considering their objective achieved.
In Medina, some Jews tribes expressed satisfaction at Muhammad's defeat, prompting him to target the Banu Nadir, driving them to Khaybar and other settlements, and seizing their property. The Quraysh, with their caravans still under attack and urged by the Jews in Khaybar, recognized the importance of occupying Medina. They negotiated with various Bedouin tribes and managed to raise 10,000 troops.
To defend against the Quraysh troops, Muhammad, advised by one of his followers, ordered a trench to be dug around Medina. This led to the Battle of the Trench. The trench hampered the Quraysh advance, and Muhammad conducted secret negotiations with the Ghatafan to induce distrust among his enemies. Unfavorable weather eventually caused the besiegers to lose morale and retire.
Afterwards, Muhammad turned his attention to the Banu Qurayza, who were accused of betraying the Muslims by conspiring with the Quraysh. Following a siege, their men were judged to be executed, while the women and children were taken captive. This event marked a significant turning point, with Muhammad consolidating his control in Medina. Muhammad's focus then shifted to other tribes, such as the Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq. The Banu Mustaliq were defeated in battle, with many captives later freed.
Over time, tensions between Muhammad and the people of Mecca eased, leading to the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, a ten-year armistice. Muhammad and his followers were then allowed to perform Umrah next year in Mecca. A short time later, Muhammad attacked the Jewish-inhabited Khaybar, where he instituted a practice that set a precedent for Muslims later on towards Jews and Christians, namely jizya. He did not slaughter those who surrendered but let them stay and tend their fields, with half the produce going to him and his followers. The Jewish colony of Wadi al-Qura also came into his possession with this expedition, making the Muslim community rich.
In early 627, Muhammad undertook the Umrah known as the 'fulfilled pilgrimage' in Mecca, during which time he reconciled with his family, the Banu Hashim, which was sealed by marrying Maymuna bint al-Harith. Some important people of Mecca, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As, recognized Muhammad as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. In December 629, after the belligerent party in Mecca, against the advice of Abu Sufyan, decided to support one of their client clans against the Khuzaa, who were allied with Muhammad, resulting in a violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, Muhammad then set out with his army to Mecca. With those willing to fight from the Mecca side becoming fewer and fewer, Abu Sufyan set out with several others, including Muhammad's friend, Budayl ibn Warqa al-Khuza’i, to ask for amnesty for all the Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad thus managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and almost all the inhabitants adopted Islam.
A hadith holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of the Kharijites. Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh. In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such as al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of the Banu Asad and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym. Later, during the Second Fitna, these same factions again fought for control of the caliphate, with the Umayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/693. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, the Abbasids, a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of the Banu Umayya. Afterward, Islamic leadership was contested between different branches of the Banu Hashim.
| Banu Abd al-Dar | Abd al-Dar ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Ahlafs | Mus'ab ibn Umayr |
| Banu Makhzum | Makhzum ibn Yaqaza ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Ahlafs | Abu Jahl, Walid ibn Al-Mughira, Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah Khalid ibn al-Walid, |
| Banu Adi | Adi ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Ahlafs | Al-Khattâb ibn Nufayl Umar ibn Al-Khattab, Zayd ibn Amr, Al-Shifa' bint Abdullah Abdullah ibn Umar |
| Banu Sahm | Sahm ibn Amr ibn Husays ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Ahlafs | al-As ibn Wa'il, Amr ibn al-As |
| Banu Jumah | Jumah ibn Amr ibn Husays ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Ahlafs | Umayya ibn Khalaf, Soufwan ibn Umayya |
| Banu Abd-Shams (then Banu Umayya) | Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Ahlaf | Umayya ibn Abd Shams, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt Uthman ibn Affan, Umm Habiba Mu'awiya I |
| Banu Nawfal | Nawfal ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Ahlaf | Jubayr ibn Muṭʽim |
| Banu Émir | Amir ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Suhayl ibn Amr, Abdullah ibn Suhayl | |
| Banu Hashim (then Abd al-Muttalib) | Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Fudul | Muhammad Abd al-Muttalib, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib, Abu Talib ibn Abdul Muttalib, Abbas ibn Abdul Muttalib Ali |
| Banu Zuhrah | Zuhra ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Fudul | 'Abd Manaf ibn Zuhra, Wahb ibn 'Abd Manaf, Aminah Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas |
| Banu Taym | Taym ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Fudul | Abu Bakr Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, Aisha, Asma bint Abi Bakr |
| Banu Asad | Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Fudul | Khadija, Waraqah ibn Nawfal Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr |
| Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr | Al-Harith ibn Fihr. | Muttayabun then Fudul | Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah |
| Banu Mutallib | Al-Mutallib ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr. | Fudul | Al-Shafiʽi (famous scholar) |
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